The Works of Flora Nwapa, Mother of Modern African Literature

By Alex J. Coyne | On June 1, 2025 | Comments (0)

Chief Florence Nwanzuruahu Nkiru Nwapa (1931 – 1993, familiarly known as Flora Nwapa, was a Nigerian-born author, poet, short story writer, and activist.

She was known as the “Mother of African Literature,” and was the first African woman author whose writing published in England.

Here’s more about her writing, including the influences behind her debut novel, Efuru.

About Flora Nwapa

Florence Nwanzuruahu Nkiru Nwapa was born in Oguta, Nigeria. Born into the Igbo tribe, she was given the otherwise male title of Chief (or ogbuefi). Much of Nwapa’s writing covered what life was like from an Igbo woman’s perspective.

She earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1957. She moved to Scotland and earned a further Diploma in Education at the University of Edinburgh. Her education readied her for a position as Education Officer for Nigeria’s Ministry of Education; Nwapa later taught at the Queen’s School in Enugu until 1962.

Nwapa published her debut novel, Efuru, in 1966. It was the first English-language novel by an African female writer to be published—and widely acclaimed—in Britain. Next came Idu (1970) and Never Again (1975). She also wrote two short story collections, and a poetry volume, Cassava Song and Rice Song (1986).

She founded Tana Press in 1974, and the Florence Nwapa Company in 1977. Nwapa was awarded the title of Chief (or ogbuefi) by her town in 1978. Usually, this honor of achievement was only awarded to Igbo men.

In 1989, Nwapa was appointed a visiting professor of creative writing at the University of Maiduguri in Nigeria. She joined the PEN International Committee in 1991. Nwapa’s last novel, The Lake Goddess, was published after her death (from pneumonia) in 1993.

Flora Nwapa is more than an influential female author: she paved the way for many emerging writers who followed in her footsteps. The Flora Nwapa Society, which provides scholarships and resources, is named in her honor.

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Efuru (1966)

Efuru was Flora Nwapa’s debut novel. Its title translates to “daughter of Heaven” in the Igbo language—a culture that wove its way thematically through most of her prose and poetry.

As mentioned earlier, Efuru became the first English-language novel by an African woman to be published in England, partially thanks to its submission to Heinemann Educational Books.

The origin story behind the manuscript might be surprising: without a specific letter to a fellow author, Nwapa might never have decided to publish her debut work at all. She was initially reluctant to publish the novel before sending a copy of the unpublished manuscript to fellow African writer Chinua Achebe. After reading the story, Achebe responded with positive feedback—and one guinea in postage money to submit the manuscript to a publisher in London.

When Heinemann agreed to publish Efuru, a new world opened up for future African writers on an international stage. Efuru draws much of its inspiration from traditional Igbo culture, and served as an important window into culture that was little seen or understood from an international perspective.

The story’s heroine, Efuru, wants nothing more than to be a mother. However, she is strong-willed and career-focused, and experiences disappointment through many of the relationships which unfold throughout the story. Traditional values, independence, and life from the Igbo woman’s perspective are important themes that made Efuru a notable work, as well a bestseller.

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Idu (1970)

Nwapa’s second novel, Idu, focuses on the eponymous main character’s close relationship with her husband and her eventual resistance to traditional cultural customs after he passes away. The word “idu” might have multiple meanings depending on its context—it can be used as a name or greeting, but also indicates a place (today, it is in Benin).

When Idu’s husband, Adiewere, dies she resists cultural norms and refuses to engage in the traditional mourning rituals. Moreover, she refuses to marry his brother as local customs dictate. Instead, Idu chooses to remain devoted to her husband, and waits to reunite with him in the afterlife rather than to remarry.

The book was criticized for its focus on Idu’s almost singular devotion to her husband, which some considered a strong contrast to Nwapa’s first novel, which exalted female independence.

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Never Again (1975)
and One is Enough (1981)

Never Again was Nwapa’s third novel, published shortly after she founded Tana Press in 1974. It takes her writing in a different direction, focusing on the protagonist, Kate, who flees from the Biafran War. Family is an important theme, though the novel also explores the true cost of war rather than its patriotic public mask.

One is Enough, Nwapa’s fourth novel, was her first published by the Flora Nwapa Company. Amaka, the story’s heroine, endures an unhappy, abusive partnership. She chooses to have only one child, as suggested by the title.

The story One is Enough returns to the theme of female independence. Amaka moves from her hometown to the larger city of Lagos in search of a better, freer, and more successful life.

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Women Are Different (1986) and Later Works

Women Are Different, a novel published after Nigeria’s 1960s independence, follows a group of women from their relationship at school to into adulthood. The story pays particular attention to how culture and traditions have changed around them.

Like her earlier works, Nwapa’s Women Are Different explores traditional values and culture from a female perspective. Divorce, infidelity, family life, and friendship among the themes that are explored through this lens.

Nwapa published two short story collections during her lifetime, This is Lagos (and Other Stories) in 1971, and later Wives at War (and Other Stories). Her sole poetry collection, Cassava Song and Rice Song (1986), compares women to the staple food cassava—a metaphor for their strength and crucial role in society.

Her last book, The Lake Goddess, was published posthumously. This novel, which explores the traditional tale of the Oguta Lake Goddess, believed to be a protector of women. is considered by some as Nwapa’s most important work.

Further Reading & Sources

• Encyclopedia Britannica
• SA History Online
• Brittle Paper
• Flora Nwapa Society
• Open Access Library: Invoking Flora Nwapa
• DW: Flora Nwapa
• The University of Edinburgh

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Contributed by Alex Coyne, a journalist, author, and proofreader. He has written for a variety of publications and websites, with a radar calibrated for gothic, gonzo and the weird. His features, posts, articles and interviews have been published in People Magazine, ATKV Taalgenoot, LitNet, The Citizen, Funds for Writers, and The South African, among other publications.

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Categories: Literary Analyses